6.36 Financial feasibility studies
See option 2.4.16, Volume 1
36a. Feasibility study shows need to adapt proposal
Bolivia
The community of Pajchanti, Bolivia, decided to manage a portion of its native forest. Following a participatory appraisal exercise, it was decided to fence one small part of the forest, to replant another, to install several trial plantings and to implement carpentry training. An economic feasibility study was then carried out which showed that the resulting costs would be much higher than the returns. Other investments would have to be made in more profitable activities for the community to gain a profit. Corrective measures were then introduced involving more communities, more extensive afforestation for commercial purposes with more rapid-growing trees, as well as improvements to the carpentry proposal.
36b. Check out the market! A project for biodiversity conservation through community participation
is being implemented in Northern Pakistan. The project works through the
concept of "conservation through use". It was decided to initiate
an ibex hunting venture to fund the conservation project, since there
was a large number of ibex in the area. The project failed after much
effort had been invested. As it turned out, there were large numbers of
ibex but there was no market for hunting them. No economic feasibility
study was undertaken as part of the preparation for this venture.
36c. The price of a bright idea Beekeeping has been practised in Babati for centuries. It is an interesting
subject for the Forest, Trees and People (FTP) project since the production
of honey is a powerful reason for conserving forests. Honey production
does not involve competition for other land use, nor does it cause deforestation
or a decline in fertility. The only ecological hazard involved, which
is serious enough, is forest fires caused when honey is harvested from
nests in hollow trees, and when the log hives are smoked during harvesting.
Increasing production and new methods eliminating this fire hazard would
be important achievements in agreement with the general goals of FTP.
A plan of action for a small-scale pilot programme on improved beekeeping was formulated in cooperation with the District Beekeeping Officer. Beekeepers in four villages were approached. They welcomed the idea of participating in a pilot programme to learn more about modern beekeeping. Each participant got three frame hives from the project. Although the hives were privately owned, each group was asked to set up a joint apiary in order to facilitate group extension, demonstrations and evaluation. It was agreed that the participants would pay the project for the production cost of the hives in cash or in part of the harvest. When the hives had been paid for, the beekeepers could place them wherever they wanted. It was estimated that it would take about two seasons to pay for the hives. Project income would be used for a revolving fund to buy more modern hives which would be distributed to other persons interested in switching to modern beekeeping.
The programme began with workshops in which the basics of modern beekeeping were discussed. The beehives were painted and apiary sites were prepared. A study tour was made to a commercial apiary. The participants were very active and interested in exchanging ideas and experiences with the beekeeping staff and with each other. The work in the village apiaries started with keen participation and genuine commitment.
The programme ended in failure, however. The technology proved inappropriate for ordinary Babati villagers. The initial investment costs were too high; bee-veils, smokers and protective clothes had to be made by specialists in Babati town, at too high a cost. The hives had to be painted regularly to prevent them from rotting. Centrifuges were needed for harvesting if the advantages of frame-hives were to be utilized, but were unavailable in Tanzania. Instead of hanging the hives on trees in the traditional way, they were placed on stands to facilitate inspection, which made them vulnerable to honey badgers, termites and black ants. In retrospect it is obvious that if a cost-benefit analysis had been undertaken this technology could not have been justified. The investments simply didn't pay off, and the new technologies were neither sustainable nor replicable without the continuing support of FTP or similar projects.
Abridged from: Johansson and Westman, 1992.
6.37 Linking benefits with efforts in conservation
37a. Ownership rewards replanting ORIMPAKA (a Malagashi NGO), in collaboration with several government
departments, is implementing a scheme to reward peasants involved in a
reafforestation project in an effort to encourage them to take part. It
is proposed that each village (fokontany) will receive a certificate
confirming it as the legal authority over the reforested lands in the
territory. In addition, all the peasants will be given ownership of the
plots they have replanted. The number of plots which a peasant may reafforest
is limited to five, to maintain a degree of equity in the allocation of
public property. It is considered that if there is no limit to the number
of plots, rich people may hire labourers to reafforest many more plots,
which they would then own.
37b. Producer communities funded from wildlife CAMPFIRE is developing the concept of "producer communities"
in wildlife management programmes. A producer community is defined as
one with jurisdiction over the land on which wildlife is found. The objec-tive
is to ensure that those communities which best conserve the wildlife habitat
in the area will benefit from the revenues from the utilization — hunting,
photography or viewing — of the wildlife in that habitat. It is assumed
that, although wild animals wander between areas, they are more likely
to be found in areas which have the best conserved habitat. In assessing
the hunting potential in each area, a safari operator will look at the
status of the habitat. The community in whose land area the animal is
'utilized' will get the full value of that use; e.g., for an elephant
trophy, the community would receive Z$80,000.
37c. For the people and for the project A number of community-based projects were initiated as part of the approach
taken by the International Foundation of the Banc D'Arguin (FIBA) to protect
the Banc D'Arguin National Park: a coastal park of ornithological importance
and home to the Imraguen people. The initiatives include programmes for
training marine carpenters, repairing deteriorating boats (lanches) and
constructing new lanches to gradually replace the Imraguen's existing
fleet. The new lanches are based on a traditional design but involve better
construction techniques and materials. The fishermen who benefit from
these projects are asked in return to contribute to the surveillance of
the park and to donate some of their time and use of their boats for tourist
and research activities.
Abridged from: Campredon et al., in Lewis, 1995.
6.38 Supportive links with relevant services and programmes
38a. Pooling programme funds to increase effectiveness Cooperation between various government agencies which are active in
and around conservation areas is generally rare in India. Indeed, their
goals and programmes are often contradictory, such as when the tribal
welfare department promotes goat-rearing while the forest officials try
to discourage grazing.
A refreshing example of the reverse is the eco-development effort at Melghat Tiger Reserve in the west Indian state of Maharashtra. In the late 1980s, the District Collector, a keen naturalist, decided to review the programmes of all the agencies under his jurisdiction. He found that the total funding for the area within and around the tiger reserve was far greater than what was available to the reserve authorities, but that much of the funding was going into unrelated or contradictory rural development activities. He pooled the resources in a fund which was used for biomass regeneration, alternative energy sources, livestock care and enhancement, employment in conservation-related activities, health care, and other activities. The integrated activities reduced local people's dependence on the reserve forests, while providing them with a stake in conservation.
The process worked successfully for three to four years but the model did not become official policy for the state government. The transfer of the collector meant that the situation is regressing to one where agencies pull in separate directions. There is an urgent need to prescribe and give incentives to the creation of mutual support between the programmes of all agencies.
38b. A national strategy to support local initiatives Landcare is an innovative, participatory and large-scale land conservation
programme. It is a partnership of government, farmers, conservationists
and community groups and involves more than one third of Australia's farming
community through local voluntary groups. A Landcare group starts with
a local community recognizing it has a land management problem. A local
organization is then formed to respond to the problem and links are quickly
made with various support agencies. Agencies that form part of the National
Landcare Programme (NLP) include the Save the Bush and One Billion Trees
programmes administered by the Australian Nature Conservation Agency,
and the community component of the Natural Resources Management Strategy
for the Murray-Darling Basin Commission. The NLP assists community groups
with their activities, provides a strategic framework for funding integrated
projects within the states of Australia and funds national initiatives
for integrated land and water management.
Abridged from Campbell and Siepen, 1994.
38c. Joint project and government staff committee avoids duplication The PNUD/UNESCO/MAG Biosphere Reserve Project in Mananara-Nord has various
government representatives on the programme planning committee. Before
the project proposes a specific initiative to the committee, the person
responsible for the activity involved (health, education, agriculture,
forestry, breeding, fishing, etc.) has to make sure that he or she has
researched the public services operating in the relevant areas so that
activities can be coordinated. In Mananara-Nord, in fact, each project
activity has been expanded or adjusted to support specific government
sectors in such areas as child vaccination, family planning, agricultural
techniques, reafforestation, and literacy campaigns.
38d. Lack of coordination makes projects vulnerable to deteriorating economy
The Heroes y Martires de Veracruz Management Plan was prepared in 1986-87 by the Nicaraguan Institute of Natural Resources and Environment (IRENA) and IUCN to address the high level of degradation of natural resources in the most productive part of the country. In the 1950s this area consisted of small farms devoted to annual crops and patches of forest. This situation changed dramatically with the introduction of cotton and large mechanized farms. Every tree was eliminated and pesticide use increased dramatically. Small farmers were displaced to the slopes of the Los Maribios range, which were quickly deforested. Within 20 years, erosion was rampant, fishing areas were contaminated, and many roads and towns were destroyed by floods. A wave of migrants left for other parts of the country to search for new lands.
Three major projects were started in 1988 and 1989: two of them on the mountain slopes (Pikin Guerrero, an IUCN-IRENA project; and Los Maribios, a FAO-IRENA project); and the third in the coastal area (OLAFO, a CATIE-IRENA project). Unfortunately, while these projects are doing well, they have become uncoordinated, reducing the impact they could have had as parts of a coherent strategy. The situation has been worsened by IRENA's reduced resources. IRENA has been weakened by Nicaragua's economic crisis, and is now unable to coordinate the projects or implement the rest of the management plan.
From: IUCN, 1993.
38e. Working together for mutual benefits The Atlantic Coastal Action Program (ACAP) was established to restore
coastal environments so that they could sustain coastal communities. Atlantic
communities face a multitude of issues that threaten traditional livelihoods
and, in some cases, the existence of the communities themselves. To tackle
the environmental problems, ACAP sites used strategic, rational, and well-designed
project proposals to develop partnerships with departments and funding
agencies. Departments are using community multi-stakeholder organizations,
formed for the programme, to deliver their own services. The ACAP organizations
have developed a reputation for completing ambitious initiatives successfully
by integrating the agendas and resources of many partners. They combine
resources to enable partners to carry out activities that would not be
possible otherwise. They add their own resources to projects in the form
of volunteer time, local skills, and other valuable in-kind support. They
also facilitate partnerships within each community and between communities
and various levels of government. The partnership groups that ACAP works
with include federal and provincial government departments, municipalities,
universities, First Nations, industries, NGOs and individuals with specialist
skills.
From: Environment Canada, 1995.
38f. Organized community programme attracts other projects In 1990, the Centre for Biodiversity at the National Museums of Kenya
along with the people of Elangata Wuas group ranch (a large stretch of
land owned by the community and communally used for grazing livestock),
established a joint programme of community-based sustainable resource
management. The Kenya Wildlife Service joined the programme to facilitate
the planned experiments in sustainable wildlife utilization. In 1992,
the Ford Foundation and the International Development Research Centre
(IDRC) provided funding for a core initiative that put an emphasis on
research, community mobilization, training and experiments with alternative
modes of sustainable land-use options.
The very presence of a well-organized community and trained staff makes it possible for donors to come in with their own specific inputs. Other donors have become involved in the construction of surface dams for the storage of rain water, the conservation of wild dogs, life education to schoolgirls, and the development of ecotourism. Involving various donors and projects is important because the programme is very open-ended. In discussions with the community, new ideas constantly come up, new projects are designed and new donors found. The programme is seen by those involved as more of a development process than a development project.
To the Centre for Biodiversity, the programme offers important research and training opportunities. Methodologies are developed, for instance, which can be used in other parts of Kenya and in neighbouring countries. These methodologies range from pastoralist ostrich husbandry, sustainable firewood harvesting and game-bird shooting to empowering local people to make rational decisions on the appropriate balance between freedom to exploit renewable resources, and the responsibility to preserve them.
The programme also trains local staff members in such matters as basic taxonomy and land degradation assessment. These staff members in turn provide environmental education to primary schools and assist scientists in the field. Through the involvement of local people, indigenous knowledge is being merged with modern science to provide appropriate and sustainable land-use techniques.
Abridged from: Vreede, 1995.
6.39 Monitoring land tenure and land values in sensitive areas
39a. Government and conservation share GIS system The Land Information System of Belize is a national-level cadastral
survey that is operative and fully automated. Through a project funded
by the British Aid Agency, all the land registries, property boundaries,
land-use categories and zoning were included in a Geographical Information
System (GIS) closely linked to the agriculture and finance ministries.
The system is extremely useful for land tax collection, fiscal control
and land-use planning at a national level. Once the information is digitized
and stored it can be regularly updated, redefined and transformed into
maps and other planning tools available for, among other things, management
of lands near conservation initiatives.
6.40 Incentives to conservation accountability
40a. Royalties conditional on environmental responsibility The successful regeneration of the coniferous forests on Pakistan's
mountains depends on protection from grazing, at least for a few years.
These forests are frequented by nomads who pay local people for the use.
This practice adds to the local livestock pressure on the forests. The
local people also collect royalties from timber sales. Previously these
royalties were unconditional. Now, as part of the Kalam Integrated Development
Project, consideration is being given to linking volumes of timber being
cut and royalties to the cooperation of local people in controlling grazing
practices. In addition, it is proposed that people will only be paid a
royalty if they agree to invest part of it in forest regeneration.
40b. Stewardship contracts reward those who use resources sustainably The underlying philosophy of the Central Visayas Regional Project, funded
by the World Bank, is that community-based resource management is the
best way to manage natural resources and protect the environment. Tenure
of and responsibility for natural resources is the major incentive for
rural people to protect and manage resources in a sustainable way, and
it offers a measure of control over potentially harmful outside influences.
The project provides security of tenure over primary resources on government owned land through Stewardship Contracts, community timber utilization permits, timber concessions to smallholders, reforestation contracts, marine reserves and fish rearing sanctuaries, and licences for access to specific resources. The Stewardship Contracts provide for a 25-year lease on government land conditional upon the resources being managed in a sustainable way. Mangrove planters were allocated stewardship contracts that gave them exclusive rights to manage and use the resources of the mangrove in a sustainable way. While the provision of wood from mangrove plantations could not be realized for a number of years, immediate benefits were apparent in the decreased rate of shoreline erosion and an increase in crab and shrimp catches within a few months of replanting. Within a year 1,354 contracts had been awarded for the mangrove areas. Contracts were also awarded for forested areas (a total of 465 within a year of introducing the scheme). Farmers who provided voluntary labour for the reforestation of the hill country were eligible to apply.
Abridged from Villacorta and van Wetten in Davis, 1993.
40c. Fishing quotas made conditional on compliance with regulations Te Community Development Quota (CDQ) programme has been introduced in
Alaskan communities bordering the Bering Sea that have a high proportion
of aboriginal residents. The CDQ programme was conceived against the background
of a highly developed fishing industry operating adjacent to poor coastal
communities. In 1989, 25 percent of the people in these communities were
found to live below the poverty level. Job opportunities are few and infrastructure
is sub-standard relative to what most United States citizens take for
granted.
The programme allows local communities to fish for pollock after the normal open-access season is closed. This gives the CDQ organizations the potential to supply the market when supplies may be low and values high. Profits from CDQ fishing operations are used by each CDQ organization to achieve the goals of its development plan. All the organizations are using their CDQ funds for training, education, job creation and infrastructure development.
The CDQ is available to community organizations that have an approved Community Development Plan and can demonstrate an ability to manage a fishing operation and comply with the regulations. Monitoring the fish-harvesting operation is a cooperative effort involving the plan's management organization and departments of the State of Alaska. A key factor is compliance with quota allocations. A daily monitoring of catch is carried out and failure to comply results in suspension or termination of the agreement.
A total of 55 communities have been granted a CDQ allocation. Each organization has contracted with an established seafood company to provide harvesting and processing of their allocation. This provides a basis for joint venture investments and transferring skills to community participants.
From: Ginter, 1995.
40d.Blackmail or incentive?
External incentives for conservation can sometimes set conservation back rather than help it. The people of the Porgera Valley in central PNG own significant areas of high biodiversity rainforest. When they heard that funds were available for conservation of forests, they approached the local conservation agency and threatened to burn their forest down if they were not given a financial 'incentive' to retain it!
6.41 Biodiversity monitoring and surveillance by local people
41a. Democratizing technology to fight a major problem Many of the Landcare groups in Australia are battling a major problem
with soil salinity, a condition that is difficult to detect in the developing
stages. Several of the groups have adopted simple low-cost monitoring
technologies to track responses to corrective measures. These are managed
by local farmers, school students and local residents and the results
are reported to a central data collection point. The information is returned
to the communities, which interpret it and use it as a basis for action.
For example, the members of the Mary's Mount Landcare group in New South Wales have set up a network of piezometers (observation wells) which are monitored every month to build a database of groundwater levels and water quality information. Watertable Watch has developed a system to monitor rising groundwater. An auger hole is dug and lined with slotted plastic pipe (a basic piezometer), into which is placed a light rod with a float at the bottom and a flag at the top. The rod is painted red at the bottom, orange in the middle and green at the top. As water tables rise, first the green part of the rod appears, then the orange and the red, signalling danger to irrigators. Watertable Watch has also encouraged the involvement of children in the monitoring process to great effect. They have installed test wells on farms which are read every month. Much of the reading is done by the farmer's children. According to one of the organizers: "Once you put the information into a graph form, the children start to see it. They can understand the changes. It's really a family thing — it gives them some enthusiasm and some ambition to get out there and do something around the farm".
The inter-state programme Saltwatch involves more than 900 schools and 50 Landcare groups in gathering and analyzing tens of thousands of water samples from creeks, rivers, irrigation canals and bores in Victoria, South Australia, New South Wales, Queensland and the Capital Territory. Each school or community analyzes its data and sends it to a central agency for processing. They receive a computer-generated overlay map of water quality in the district which may be displayed in the school, local store or hall, thus ensuring that the whole community 'owns' the problem. Data is stored on school computers as well as in government agencies, and groups are encouraged to look at trends over time within their catchment.
Another group, Streamwatch, involves schools within the Sydney Water Board area in investigating water quality using nine basic tests. These are used to generate a water quality index, so that water quality can be compared across networks of water catchments. Schools are provided with water testing equipment, and with training for teachers in the use of the kits and in computer networking.
Abridged from Campbell and Siepen, 1994.
41b. Restocking sea cucumber
In Marovo Lagoon in the western Solomon Islands, sea cucumbers (bêche-de-mer) are a significant source of income and a traditional food. Recent over-harvesting to sell to Korean and Japanese buyers left the area almost barren of this previously common species. To overcome the problem, local communities worked with WWF scientists to regulate fishing practices and ensure sustainability. A traditional taboo area was declared over one part of the lagoon, banning all exploitation of bêche-de-mer, and limits were set on catches in other areas.
A participatory monitoring system was established by the communities to observe the changes that resulted from the new management regime. Fishermen and women kept a record of sea cucumber catches and the time necessary to gather them on a regular basis. They periodically conducted transect and lagoon floor plot counts of sea cucumbers. This monitoring has shown a significant increase in bêche-de-mer popula-tions in the lagoon over the past two years and reinforced the value of new practices for the communities.
41c. Citizens monitor the Atlantic Coast
The Atlantic Coastal Action Program (ACAP) aims to restore coastal environments so that they can sustain coastal communities. The purpose of the programme has evolved from an environmental management initiative to an integrated coastal zone management initiative. To many community stakeholders, ACAP is seen as an economic prosperity initiative. The concerns driving most stakeholders are the restoration of shellfish and sport fisheries, the retention of topsoil, and the responsible pursuit of aquaculture and ecotourism opportunities.
Community stakeholders are actively involved in monitoring resources.
Citizens identify the ecosystem indicators they would like to monitor
at the community level. These include environmental (chemical and biological)
indicators as well as socio-economic ones. With the assistance and guidance
of specialists, community volunteers are presently monitoring water quality
and carrying out "nest box" surveys in many areas of Atlantic
Canada. Credible information gathered by citizens is helping scientists
and citizens understand their environments and the impact of human behaviour
and make informed decisions based on that information.
Abridged from: Environment Canada, 1995.
41d. Trail groups to monitor resource extraction Some of the communities at the border of Mount Elgon National Park are
entering into partnership agreements with the park authorities to monitor
local use and prevent the undue exploitation of park resources. People
are allowed to extract bamboo for subsistence and traditional uses, but
are not allowed to harvest other products, such as timber, or to hunt
game. Some trail surveillance groups have been formed to survey extraction
of resources along a particular trail.
41e. Monitoring the Rwenzori Mountains
For the past two years, WWF US has provided training and technical assistance to the Uganda Rwenzori project in developing and implementing a monitoring and evaluation system, starting with clarification of the project's objectives. The project is designed "to assist Rwenzori Mountains National Park and surrounding communities to conserve the natural resources of the area, in particular the biodiversity and its value as a watershed". Over 180,000 people live on the park's borders. In February 1996, a local consultant facilitated a workshop on participatory baseline data collection for 18 project and park staff who worked directly with communities. Much of the workshop focused on simplifying terms and concepts for use at the community level (e.g., using "measuring successes and failures" in place of "evaluation", "sign" in place of "indicator", etc.). As part of the training, extension staff began the actual participatory baseline data collection exercises on resource use and attitudes towards the park. Data was collected in order to monitor progress on the project's objectives of reducing pressure on park resources and improving park-community relations. Indicators included types and levels of resource use, sites where they were obtained, and interest in alternative technologies and the objectives of the park.
6.42 Integrating conservation initiatives with local empowerment in welfare, health and population dynamics
42a. Need for family planning identified in environmental management plans
CARE began working in the Bwindi and Mgahinga National Parks areas in
1986 with a programme to encourage people to plant trees. In 1988, a Development
Through Conservation (DTC) project was started in conjunction with WWF.
The project was intended to assist the communities bordering the two parks
to sustainably manage their natural resources and to help Uganda National
Parks (UNP) conserve the forests and their biodiversity.
In 1992, partly in response to a desire for family planning assistance expressed by community members and relayed through DTC staff, CARE initiated a region-wide family planning programme funded by USAID's Population and Family Planning Expansion Program. The Community Reproductive Health Project (CREHP) works with district health teams to train clinic personnel in the delivery of family planning services in 74 regional health units. In 1994, CREHP began selecting and training community volunteers to provide family planning counselling and referral in their communities and to distribute contraceptives.
There are strong links between the two regional CARE projects. Population densities surrounding the parks are among the highest in Africa. Land shortage due to overpopulation, as reported in numerous community surveys, is one of the most pressing problems for people of the area. Furthermore, there are serious doubts that the conservation efforts of the DTC programme will be sustainable if the local population continues to grow at its current rate of between two and three per cent per year. The desire for family planning among local populations is strong, due mostly to the difficulty of adequately providing for today's children and the pervasive lack of male support in households.
Since both programmes require intensive community-based approaches, there is a prime opportunity to integrate them at the community level. In response, DTC is trying a new extension approach called Community-Based Environmental Management (CBEM). Community members analyze their environmental problems and develop solutions as part of an environmental management plan. If family planning is identified as a solution to problems caused by high population densities and land shortage, CREHP is introduced to assist the community in selecting and monitoring a family planning volunteer who lives and works in their community and is supervised by the local health centre. This integrated approach looks very promising.
Abridged from: Lindblade, 1995.
42b. Counting people counts Two experiences of attempting to rescue a population of gibbons in a
protected area call attention to the importance of knowing something about
the people in the vicinity. In a protected area in Indonesia a grim future
is foreseen for the small population of gibbons it supports. The area
is surrounded by villages that use parts of the protected area for rice
growing. All of the villages have large numbers of children and moderate-to-high
rates of total fertility (the number of children a woman bears in her
reproductive life). Three to five children per family are not uncommon
in these communities. In 20 years the villages will have scores of young
people coming into the labour market needing land or jobs. The gibbons'
habitat is very likely to be further encroached upon, and the likelihood
of sustaining the population is much in doubt.
In the hilly forests separating Thailand's great central plain from the dry plateau of the northeast, another protected area contains a population of gibbons whose protection is the aim of the government and of local wildlife organizations. This area is also surrounded by farming villages, but rather than expanding, there is a clear possibility that they will get smaller. They will not be excluded or driven out by fencing the protected area; other processes are at work. The villagers have been part of the Thai national family planning programme that has produced one of the most rapid declines in fertility ever known. Most families have only two children. More land will not be needed for these children. There is already enough for the future subsistence in the area — in fact, more than enough, as many of the young people are migrating to Bangkok for work. In this area, a positive future for the gibbon population is more probable.
6.43 Staff review of internal management issues
43a.Staff and consultants identify need for monitoring of programme After reviewing the Hill Resource Management Society programme (HRMS)
in 1989, officers of the Haryana Forest Department, together with a consulting
team, agreed that the programme needed to be systematically integrated
within the policies and procedures of the forest department. Over the
next year, a team composed of departmental officers and outside resource
persons (supported by the Ford Foundation and the Tata Energy Research
Institute) began working intensively with field staff in five regions.
One reason the programme had encountered difficulty in expanding was the
lack of attention it received due to the heavy workloads of departmental
officers. It was agreed that the programme needed regular monitoring by
senior officers working together with their subordinates.
An informal working group was then established, meeting every four to eight weeks to oversee the development of the programme and the work of the HRMS support unit. The working group was comprised of senior staff and the consulting team. The meetings of the working group evolved in a relatively informal way. Many people attended just because they were involved in the programme. After each meeting, minutes were distributed reviewing issues discussed and decisions made. At each subsequent meeting, the decisions of the previous meeting were reviewed to see if action had been taken. The working group slowly became an integral part of the department's operations.
Abridged from Gupta in Dhar et. al., n.d.
Pakistan
Tanzania
See option 2.4.17, Volume 1
Madagascar
Zimbabwe
Mauritania
See option 2.4.18, Volume 1
India
Australia
Madagascar
Nicaragua
Canada
Kenya
See option 2.4.19, Volume 1
Belize
See option 2.4.20, Volume 1
Pakistan
The Philippines
United States
Papua New Guinea (PNG)
See option 2.4.21, Volume 1
Australia
Solomon Islands
Canada
Uganda
Uganda
See option 2.4.22, Volume 1
Uganda
Indonesia/Thailand
See option 3.4.1, Volume 1
Haryana, India
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